diff --git a/builtin/clone.c b/builtin/clone.c
index f14229abf4..88276e5b7a 100644
--- a/builtin/clone.c
+++ b/builtin/clone.c
@@ -342,6 +342,8 @@ static void copy_or_link_directory(struct strbuf *src, struct strbuf *dest,
 		strbuf_setlen(src, src_len);
 		die(_("failed to iterate over '%s'"), src->buf);
 	}
+
+	dir_iterator_free(iter);
 }
 
 static void clone_local(const char *src_repo, const char *dest_repo)
diff --git a/builtin/update-ref.c b/builtin/update-ref.c
index 4d35bdc4b4..1d541e13ad 100644
--- a/builtin/update-ref.c
+++ b/builtin/update-ref.c
@@ -179,7 +179,8 @@ static int parse_next_oid(const char **next, const char *end,
 		(*next)++;
 		*next = parse_arg(*next, &arg);
 		if (arg.len) {
-			if (repo_get_oid(the_repository, arg.buf, oid))
+			if (repo_get_oid_with_flags(the_repository, arg.buf, oid,
+						    GET_OID_SKIP_AMBIGUITY_CHECK))
 				goto invalid;
 		} else {
 			/* Without -z, an empty value means all zeros: */
@@ -197,7 +198,8 @@ static int parse_next_oid(const char **next, const char *end,
 		*next += arg.len;
 
 		if (arg.len) {
-			if (repo_get_oid(the_repository, arg.buf, oid))
+			if (repo_get_oid_with_flags(the_repository, arg.buf, oid,
+						    GET_OID_SKIP_AMBIGUITY_CHECK))
 				goto invalid;
 		} else if (flags & PARSE_SHA1_ALLOW_EMPTY) {
 			/* With -z, treat an empty value as all zeros: */
@@ -299,7 +301,8 @@ static void parse_cmd_symref_update(struct ref_transaction *transaction,
 			die("symref-update %s: expected old value", refname);
 
 		if (!strcmp(old_arg, "oid")) {
-			if (repo_get_oid(the_repository, old_target, &old_oid))
+			if (repo_get_oid_with_flags(the_repository, old_target, &old_oid,
+						    GET_OID_SKIP_AMBIGUITY_CHECK))
 				die("symref-update %s: invalid oid: %s", refname, old_target);
 
 			have_old_oid = 1;
@@ -772,7 +775,8 @@ int cmd_update_ref(int argc,
 		refname = argv[0];
 		value = argv[1];
 		oldval = argv[2];
-		if (repo_get_oid(the_repository, value, &oid))
+		if (repo_get_oid_with_flags(the_repository, value, &oid,
+					    GET_OID_SKIP_AMBIGUITY_CHECK))
 			die("%s: not a valid SHA1", value);
 	}
 
@@ -783,7 +787,8 @@ int cmd_update_ref(int argc,
 			 * must not already exist:
 			 */
 			oidclr(&oldoid, the_repository->hash_algo);
-		else if (repo_get_oid(the_repository, oldval, &oldoid))
+		else if (repo_get_oid_with_flags(the_repository, oldval, &oldoid,
+						 GET_OID_SKIP_AMBIGUITY_CHECK))
 			die("%s: not a valid old SHA1", oldval);
 	}
 
diff --git a/dir-iterator.c b/dir-iterator.c
index de619846f2..857e1d9bda 100644
--- a/dir-iterator.c
+++ b/dir-iterator.c
@@ -193,9 +193,9 @@ int dir_iterator_advance(struct dir_iterator *dir_iterator)
 
 	if (S_ISDIR(iter->base.st.st_mode) && push_level(iter)) {
 		if (errno != ENOENT && iter->flags & DIR_ITERATOR_PEDANTIC)
-			goto error_out;
+			return ITER_ERROR;
 		if (iter->levels_nr == 0)
-			goto error_out;
+			return ITER_ERROR;
 	}
 
 	/* Loop until we find an entry that we can give back to the caller. */
@@ -211,11 +211,11 @@ int dir_iterator_advance(struct dir_iterator *dir_iterator)
 			int ret = next_directory_entry(level->dir, iter->base.path.buf, &de);
 			if (ret < 0) {
 				if (iter->flags & DIR_ITERATOR_PEDANTIC)
-					goto error_out;
+					return ITER_ERROR;
 				continue;
 			} else if (ret > 0) {
 				if (pop_level(iter) == 0)
-					return dir_iterator_abort(dir_iterator);
+					return ITER_DONE;
 				continue;
 			}
 
@@ -223,7 +223,7 @@ int dir_iterator_advance(struct dir_iterator *dir_iterator)
 		} else {
 			if (level->entries_idx >= level->entries.nr) {
 				if (pop_level(iter) == 0)
-					return dir_iterator_abort(dir_iterator);
+					return ITER_DONE;
 				continue;
 			}
 
@@ -232,22 +232,21 @@ int dir_iterator_advance(struct dir_iterator *dir_iterator)
 
 		if (prepare_next_entry_data(iter, name)) {
 			if (errno != ENOENT && iter->flags & DIR_ITERATOR_PEDANTIC)
-				goto error_out;
+				return ITER_ERROR;
 			continue;
 		}
 
 		return ITER_OK;
 	}
-
-error_out:
-	dir_iterator_abort(dir_iterator);
-	return ITER_ERROR;
 }
 
-int dir_iterator_abort(struct dir_iterator *dir_iterator)
+void dir_iterator_free(struct dir_iterator *dir_iterator)
 {
 	struct dir_iterator_int *iter = (struct dir_iterator_int *)dir_iterator;
 
+	if (!iter)
+		return;
+
 	for (; iter->levels_nr; iter->levels_nr--) {
 		struct dir_iterator_level *level =
 			&iter->levels[iter->levels_nr - 1];
@@ -266,7 +265,6 @@ int dir_iterator_abort(struct dir_iterator *dir_iterator)
 	free(iter->levels);
 	strbuf_release(&iter->base.path);
 	free(iter);
-	return ITER_DONE;
 }
 
 struct dir_iterator *dir_iterator_begin(const char *path, unsigned int flags)
@@ -301,7 +299,7 @@ struct dir_iterator *dir_iterator_begin(const char *path, unsigned int flags)
 	return dir_iterator;
 
 error_out:
-	dir_iterator_abort(dir_iterator);
+	dir_iterator_free(dir_iterator);
 	errno = saved_errno;
 	return NULL;
 }
diff --git a/dir-iterator.h b/dir-iterator.h
index 6d438809b6..ccd6a19734 100644
--- a/dir-iterator.h
+++ b/dir-iterator.h
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@
  *
  *     while ((ok = dir_iterator_advance(iter)) == ITER_OK) {
  *             if (want_to_stop_iteration()) {
- *                     ok = dir_iterator_abort(iter);
+ *                     ok = ITER_DONE;
  *                     break;
  *             }
  *
@@ -39,6 +39,7 @@
  *
  *     if (ok != ITER_DONE)
  *             handle_error();
+ *     dir_iterator_free(iter);
  *
  * Callers are allowed to modify iter->path while they are working,
  * but they must restore it to its original contents before calling
@@ -107,11 +108,7 @@ struct dir_iterator *dir_iterator_begin(const char *path, unsigned int flags);
  */
 int dir_iterator_advance(struct dir_iterator *iterator);
 
-/*
- * End the iteration before it has been exhausted. Free the
- * dir_iterator and any associated resources and return ITER_DONE. On
- * error, free the dir_iterator and return ITER_ERROR.
- */
-int dir_iterator_abort(struct dir_iterator *iterator);
+/* Free the dir_iterator and any associated resources. */
+void dir_iterator_free(struct dir_iterator *iterator);
 
 #endif
diff --git a/hash.h b/hash.h
index 4367acfec5..5e3c462dc5 100644
--- a/hash.h
+++ b/hash.h
@@ -193,17 +193,18 @@ struct object_id {
 	int algo;	/* XXX requires 4-byte alignment */
 };
 
-#define GET_OID_QUIETLY           01
-#define GET_OID_COMMIT            02
-#define GET_OID_COMMITTISH        04
-#define GET_OID_TREE             010
-#define GET_OID_TREEISH          020
-#define GET_OID_BLOB             040
-#define GET_OID_FOLLOW_SYMLINKS 0100
-#define GET_OID_RECORD_PATH     0200
-#define GET_OID_ONLY_TO_DIE    04000
-#define GET_OID_REQUIRE_PATH  010000
-#define GET_OID_HASH_ANY      020000
+#define GET_OID_QUIETLY                  01
+#define GET_OID_COMMIT                   02
+#define GET_OID_COMMITTISH               04
+#define GET_OID_TREE                    010
+#define GET_OID_TREEISH                 020
+#define GET_OID_BLOB                    040
+#define GET_OID_FOLLOW_SYMLINKS        0100
+#define GET_OID_RECORD_PATH            0200
+#define GET_OID_ONLY_TO_DIE           04000
+#define GET_OID_REQUIRE_PATH         010000
+#define GET_OID_HASH_ANY             020000
+#define GET_OID_SKIP_AMBIGUITY_CHECK 040000
 
 #define GET_OID_DISAMBIGUATORS \
 	(GET_OID_COMMIT | GET_OID_COMMITTISH | \
diff --git a/iterator.h b/iterator.h
index 0f6900e43a..6b77dcc262 100644
--- a/iterator.h
+++ b/iterator.h
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@
 #define ITER_OK 0
 
 /*
- * The iterator is exhausted and has been freed.
+ * The iterator is exhausted.
  */
 #define ITER_DONE -1
 
diff --git a/object-name.c b/object-name.c
index 76749fbfe6..91f731373a 100644
--- a/object-name.c
+++ b/object-name.c
@@ -961,7 +961,9 @@ static int get_oid_basic(struct repository *r, const char *str, int len,
 	int fatal = !(flags & GET_OID_QUIETLY);
 
 	if (len == r->hash_algo->hexsz && !get_oid_hex(str, oid)) {
-		if (repo_settings_get_warn_ambiguous_refs(r) && warn_on_object_refname_ambiguity) {
+		if (!(flags & GET_OID_SKIP_AMBIGUITY_CHECK) &&
+		    repo_settings_get_warn_ambiguous_refs(r) &&
+		    warn_on_object_refname_ambiguity) {
 			refs_found = repo_dwim_ref(r, str, len, &tmp_oid, &real_ref, 0);
 			if (refs_found > 0) {
 				warning(warn_msg, len, str);
@@ -1794,18 +1796,20 @@ void object_context_release(struct object_context *ctx)
 	strbuf_release(&ctx->symlink_path);
 }
 
-/*
- * This is like "get_oid_basic()", except it allows "object ID expressions",
- * notably "xyz^" for "parent of xyz"
- */
-int repo_get_oid(struct repository *r, const char *name, struct object_id *oid)
+int repo_get_oid_with_flags(struct repository *r, const char *name,
+			    struct object_id *oid, unsigned flags)
 {
 	struct object_context unused;
-	int ret = get_oid_with_context(r, name, 0, oid, &unused);
+	int ret = get_oid_with_context(r, name, flags, oid, &unused);
 	object_context_release(&unused);
 	return ret;
 }
 
+int repo_get_oid(struct repository *r, const char *name, struct object_id *oid)
+{
+	return repo_get_oid_with_flags(r, name, oid, 0);
+}
+
 /*
  * This returns a non-zero value if the string (built using printf
  * format and the given arguments) is not a valid object.
diff --git a/object-name.h b/object-name.h
index 8dba4a47a4..cda4934cd5 100644
--- a/object-name.h
+++ b/object-name.h
@@ -51,6 +51,12 @@ void strbuf_repo_add_unique_abbrev(struct strbuf *sb, struct repository *repo,
 void strbuf_add_unique_abbrev(struct strbuf *sb, const struct object_id *oid,
 			      int abbrev_len);
 
+/*
+ * This is like "get_oid_basic()", except it allows "object ID expressions",
+ * notably "xyz^" for "parent of xyz". Accepts GET_OID_* flags.
+ */
+int repo_get_oid_with_flags(struct repository *r, const char *str,
+			    struct object_id *oid, unsigned flags);
 int repo_get_oid(struct repository *r, const char *str, struct object_id *oid);
 __attribute__((format (printf, 2, 3)))
 int get_oidf(struct object_id *oid, const char *fmt, ...);
diff --git a/refs.c b/refs.c
index 50c3849845..f0fe77bd7c 100644
--- a/refs.c
+++ b/refs.c
@@ -2495,19 +2495,18 @@ int ref_transaction_commit(struct ref_transaction *transaction,
 	return ret;
 }
 
-int refs_verify_refname_available(struct ref_store *refs,
-				  const char *refname,
-				  const struct string_list *extras,
-				  const struct string_list *skip,
-				  unsigned int initial_transaction,
-				  struct strbuf *err)
+int refs_verify_refnames_available(struct ref_store *refs,
+				   const struct string_list *refnames,
+				   const struct string_list *extras,
+				   const struct string_list *skip,
+				   unsigned int initial_transaction,
+				   struct strbuf *err)
 {
-	const char *slash;
-	const char *extra_refname;
 	struct strbuf dirname = STRBUF_INIT;
 	struct strbuf referent = STRBUF_INIT;
-	struct object_id oid;
-	unsigned int type;
+	struct string_list_item *item;
+	struct ref_iterator *iter = NULL;
+	struct strset dirnames;
 	int ret = -1;
 
 	/*
@@ -2517,86 +2516,130 @@ int refs_verify_refname_available(struct ref_store *refs,
 
 	assert(err);
 
-	strbuf_grow(&dirname, strlen(refname) + 1);
-	for (slash = strchr(refname, '/'); slash; slash = strchr(slash + 1, '/')) {
-		/*
-		 * Just saying "Is a directory" when we e.g. can't
-		 * lock some multi-level ref isn't very informative,
-		 * the user won't be told *what* is a directory, so
-		 * let's not use strerror() below.
-		 */
-		int ignore_errno;
-		/* Expand dirname to the new prefix, not including the trailing slash: */
-		strbuf_add(&dirname, refname + dirname.len, slash - refname - dirname.len);
+	strset_init(&dirnames);
 
-		/*
-		 * We are still at a leading dir of the refname (e.g.,
-		 * "refs/foo"; if there is a reference with that name,
-		 * it is a conflict, *unless* it is in skip.
-		 */
-		if (skip && string_list_has_string(skip, dirname.buf))
-			continue;
+	for_each_string_list_item(item, refnames) {
+		const char *refname = item->string;
+		const char *extra_refname;
+		struct object_id oid;
+		unsigned int type;
+		const char *slash;
 
-		if (!initial_transaction &&
-		    !refs_read_raw_ref(refs, dirname.buf, &oid, &referent,
-				       &type, &ignore_errno)) {
-			strbuf_addf(err, _("'%s' exists; cannot create '%s'"),
-				    dirname.buf, refname);
-			goto cleanup;
-		}
+		strbuf_reset(&dirname);
 
-		if (extras && string_list_has_string(extras, dirname.buf)) {
-			strbuf_addf(err, _("cannot process '%s' and '%s' at the same time"),
-				    refname, dirname.buf);
-			goto cleanup;
-		}
-	}
+		for (slash = strchr(refname, '/'); slash; slash = strchr(slash + 1, '/')) {
+			/*
+			 * Just saying "Is a directory" when we e.g. can't
+			 * lock some multi-level ref isn't very informative,
+			 * the user won't be told *what* is a directory, so
+			 * let's not use strerror() below.
+			 */
+			int ignore_errno;
 
-	/*
-	 * We are at the leaf of our refname (e.g., "refs/foo/bar").
-	 * There is no point in searching for a reference with that
-	 * name, because a refname isn't considered to conflict with
-	 * itself. But we still need to check for references whose
-	 * names are in the "refs/foo/bar/" namespace, because they
-	 * *do* conflict.
-	 */
-	strbuf_addstr(&dirname, refname + dirname.len);
-	strbuf_addch(&dirname, '/');
+			/* Expand dirname to the new prefix, not including the trailing slash: */
+			strbuf_add(&dirname, refname + dirname.len, slash - refname - dirname.len);
 
-	if (!initial_transaction) {
-		struct ref_iterator *iter;
-		int ok;
-
-		iter = refs_ref_iterator_begin(refs, dirname.buf, NULL, 0,
-					       DO_FOR_EACH_INCLUDE_BROKEN);
-		while ((ok = ref_iterator_advance(iter)) == ITER_OK) {
-			if (skip &&
-			    string_list_has_string(skip, iter->refname))
+			/*
+			 * We are still at a leading dir of the refname (e.g.,
+			 * "refs/foo"; if there is a reference with that name,
+			 * it is a conflict, *unless* it is in skip.
+			 */
+			if (skip && string_list_has_string(skip, dirname.buf))
 				continue;
 
-			strbuf_addf(err, _("'%s' exists; cannot create '%s'"),
-				    iter->refname, refname);
-			ref_iterator_abort(iter);
-			goto cleanup;
+			/*
+			 * If we've already seen the directory we don't need to
+			 * process it again. Skip it to avoid checking checking
+			 * common prefixes like "refs/heads/" repeatedly.
+			 */
+			if (!strset_add(&dirnames, dirname.buf))
+				continue;
+
+			if (!initial_transaction &&
+			    !refs_read_raw_ref(refs, dirname.buf, &oid, &referent,
+					       &type, &ignore_errno)) {
+				strbuf_addf(err, _("'%s' exists; cannot create '%s'"),
+					    dirname.buf, refname);
+				goto cleanup;
+			}
+
+			if (extras && string_list_has_string(extras, dirname.buf)) {
+				strbuf_addf(err, _("cannot process '%s' and '%s' at the same time"),
+					    refname, dirname.buf);
+				goto cleanup;
+			}
 		}
 
-		if (ok != ITER_DONE)
-			BUG("error while iterating over references");
+		/*
+		 * We are at the leaf of our refname (e.g., "refs/foo/bar").
+		 * There is no point in searching for a reference with that
+		 * name, because a refname isn't considered to conflict with
+		 * itself. But we still need to check for references whose
+		 * names are in the "refs/foo/bar/" namespace, because they
+		 * *do* conflict.
+		 */
+		strbuf_addstr(&dirname, refname + dirname.len);
+		strbuf_addch(&dirname, '/');
+
+		if (!initial_transaction) {
+			int ok;
+
+			if (!iter) {
+				iter = refs_ref_iterator_begin(refs, dirname.buf, NULL, 0,
+							       DO_FOR_EACH_INCLUDE_BROKEN);
+			} else if (ref_iterator_seek(iter, dirname.buf) < 0) {
+				goto cleanup;
+			}
+
+			while ((ok = ref_iterator_advance(iter)) == ITER_OK) {
+				if (skip &&
+				    string_list_has_string(skip, iter->refname))
+					continue;
+
+				strbuf_addf(err, _("'%s' exists; cannot create '%s'"),
+					    iter->refname, refname);
+				goto cleanup;
+			}
+
+			if (ok != ITER_DONE)
+				BUG("error while iterating over references");
+		}
+
+		extra_refname = find_descendant_ref(dirname.buf, extras, skip);
+		if (extra_refname) {
+			strbuf_addf(err, _("cannot process '%s' and '%s' at the same time"),
+				    refname, extra_refname);
+			goto cleanup;
+		}
 	}
 
-	extra_refname = find_descendant_ref(dirname.buf, extras, skip);
-	if (extra_refname)
-		strbuf_addf(err, _("cannot process '%s' and '%s' at the same time"),
-			    refname, extra_refname);
-	else
-		ret = 0;
+	ret = 0;
 
 cleanup:
 	strbuf_release(&referent);
 	strbuf_release(&dirname);
+	strset_clear(&dirnames);
+	ref_iterator_free(iter);
 	return ret;
 }
 
+int refs_verify_refname_available(struct ref_store *refs,
+				  const char *refname,
+				  const struct string_list *extras,
+				  const struct string_list *skip,
+				  unsigned int initial_transaction,
+				  struct strbuf *err)
+{
+	struct string_list_item item = { .string = (char *) refname };
+	struct string_list refnames = {
+		.items = &item,
+		.nr = 1,
+	};
+
+	return refs_verify_refnames_available(refs, &refnames, extras, skip,
+					      initial_transaction, err);
+}
+
 struct do_for_each_reflog_help {
 	each_reflog_fn *fn;
 	void *cb_data;
diff --git a/refs.h b/refs.h
index 8442e89883..240e2d8537 100644
--- a/refs.h
+++ b/refs.h
@@ -124,6 +124,18 @@ int refs_verify_refname_available(struct ref_store *refs,
 				  unsigned int initial_transaction,
 				  struct strbuf *err);
 
+/*
+ * Same as `refs_verify_refname_available()`, but checking for a list of
+ * refnames instead of only a single item. This is more efficient in the case
+ * where one needs to check multiple refnames.
+ */
+int refs_verify_refnames_available(struct ref_store *refs,
+				   const struct string_list *refnames,
+				   const struct string_list *extras,
+				   const struct string_list *skip,
+				   unsigned int initial_transaction,
+				   struct strbuf *err);
+
 int refs_ref_exists(struct ref_store *refs, const char *refname);
 
 int should_autocreate_reflog(enum log_refs_config log_all_ref_updates,
diff --git a/refs/debug.c b/refs/debug.c
index fbc4df08b4..5390fa9c18 100644
--- a/refs/debug.c
+++ b/refs/debug.c
@@ -169,6 +169,16 @@ static int debug_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 	return res;
 }
 
+static int debug_ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
+				   const char *prefix)
+{
+	struct debug_ref_iterator *diter =
+		(struct debug_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
+	int res = diter->iter->vtable->seek(diter->iter, prefix);
+	trace_printf_key(&trace_refs, "iterator_seek: %s: %d\n", prefix ? prefix : "", res);
+	return res;
+}
+
 static int debug_ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
 				   struct object_id *peeled)
 {
@@ -179,19 +189,19 @@ static int debug_ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
 	return res;
 }
 
-static int debug_ref_iterator_abort(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
+static void debug_ref_iterator_release(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 {
 	struct debug_ref_iterator *diter =
 		(struct debug_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
-	int res = diter->iter->vtable->abort(diter->iter);
-	trace_printf_key(&trace_refs, "iterator_abort: %d\n", res);
-	return res;
+	diter->iter->vtable->release(diter->iter);
+	trace_printf_key(&trace_refs, "iterator_abort\n");
 }
 
 static struct ref_iterator_vtable debug_ref_iterator_vtable = {
 	.advance = debug_ref_iterator_advance,
+	.seek = debug_ref_iterator_seek,
 	.peel = debug_ref_iterator_peel,
-	.abort = debug_ref_iterator_abort,
+	.release = debug_ref_iterator_release,
 };
 
 static struct ref_iterator *
diff --git a/refs/files-backend.c b/refs/files-backend.c
index 6c6e67dc1c..ff54a4bb7e 100644
--- a/refs/files-backend.c
+++ b/refs/files-backend.c
@@ -678,6 +678,7 @@ static void unlock_ref(struct ref_lock *lock)
  */
 static int lock_raw_ref(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 			const char *refname, int mustexist,
+			struct string_list *refnames_to_check,
 			const struct string_list *extras,
 			struct ref_lock **lock_p,
 			struct strbuf *referent,
@@ -855,16 +856,11 @@ retry:
 		}
 
 		/*
-		 * If the ref did not exist and we are creating it,
-		 * make sure there is no existing packed ref that
-		 * conflicts with refname:
+		 * If the ref did not exist and we are creating it, we have to
+		 * make sure there is no existing packed ref that conflicts
+		 * with refname. This check is deferred so that we can batch it.
 		 */
-		if (refs_verify_refname_available(
-				    refs->packed_ref_store, refname,
-				    extras, NULL, 0, err)) {
-			ret = TRANSACTION_NAME_CONFLICT;
-			goto error_return;
-		}
+		string_list_append(refnames_to_check, refname);
 	}
 
 	ret = 0;
@@ -919,13 +915,17 @@ static int files_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 		return ITER_OK;
 	}
 
-	iter->iter0 = NULL;
-	if (ref_iterator_abort(ref_iterator) != ITER_DONE)
-		ok = ITER_ERROR;
-
 	return ok;
 }
 
+static int files_ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
+				   const char *prefix)
+{
+	struct files_ref_iterator *iter =
+		(struct files_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
+	return ref_iterator_seek(iter->iter0, prefix);
+}
+
 static int files_ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
 				   struct object_id *peeled)
 {
@@ -935,23 +935,18 @@ static int files_ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
 	return ref_iterator_peel(iter->iter0, peeled);
 }
 
-static int files_ref_iterator_abort(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
+static void files_ref_iterator_release(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 {
 	struct files_ref_iterator *iter =
 		(struct files_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
-	int ok = ITER_DONE;
-
-	if (iter->iter0)
-		ok = ref_iterator_abort(iter->iter0);
-
-	base_ref_iterator_free(ref_iterator);
-	return ok;
+	ref_iterator_free(iter->iter0);
 }
 
 static struct ref_iterator_vtable files_ref_iterator_vtable = {
 	.advance = files_ref_iterator_advance,
+	.seek = files_ref_iterator_seek,
 	.peel = files_ref_iterator_peel,
-	.abort = files_ref_iterator_abort,
+	.release = files_ref_iterator_release,
 };
 
 static struct ref_iterator *files_ref_iterator_begin(
@@ -1382,7 +1377,7 @@ static int should_pack_refs(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 				    iter->flags, opts))
 			refcount++;
 		if (refcount >= limit) {
-			ref_iterator_abort(iter);
+			ref_iterator_free(iter);
 			return 1;
 		}
 	}
@@ -1390,6 +1385,7 @@ static int should_pack_refs(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 	if (ret != ITER_DONE)
 		die("error while iterating over references");
 
+	ref_iterator_free(iter);
 	return 0;
 }
 
@@ -1456,6 +1452,7 @@ static int files_pack_refs(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 	packed_refs_unlock(refs->packed_ref_store);
 
 	prune_refs(refs, &refs_to_prune);
+	ref_iterator_free(iter);
 	strbuf_release(&err);
 	return 0;
 }
@@ -2303,35 +2300,33 @@ static int files_reflog_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 		return ITER_OK;
 	}
 
-	iter->dir_iterator = NULL;
-	if (ref_iterator_abort(ref_iterator) == ITER_ERROR)
-		ok = ITER_ERROR;
 	return ok;
 }
 
+static int files_reflog_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator UNUSED,
+				      const char *prefix UNUSED)
+{
+	BUG("ref_iterator_seek() called for reflog_iterator");
+}
+
 static int files_reflog_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator UNUSED,
 				      struct object_id *peeled UNUSED)
 {
 	BUG("ref_iterator_peel() called for reflog_iterator");
 }
 
-static int files_reflog_iterator_abort(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
+static void files_reflog_iterator_release(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 {
 	struct files_reflog_iterator *iter =
 		(struct files_reflog_iterator *)ref_iterator;
-	int ok = ITER_DONE;
-
-	if (iter->dir_iterator)
-		ok = dir_iterator_abort(iter->dir_iterator);
-
-	base_ref_iterator_free(ref_iterator);
-	return ok;
+	dir_iterator_free(iter->dir_iterator);
 }
 
 static struct ref_iterator_vtable files_reflog_iterator_vtable = {
 	.advance = files_reflog_iterator_advance,
+	.seek = files_reflog_iterator_seek,
 	.peel = files_reflog_iterator_peel,
-	.abort = files_reflog_iterator_abort,
+	.release = files_reflog_iterator_release,
 };
 
 static struct ref_iterator *reflog_iterator_begin(struct ref_store *ref_store,
@@ -2569,6 +2564,7 @@ static int lock_ref_for_update(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 			       struct ref_update *update,
 			       struct ref_transaction *transaction,
 			       const char *head_ref,
+			       struct string_list *refnames_to_check,
 			       struct string_list *affected_refnames,
 			       struct strbuf *err)
 {
@@ -2597,7 +2593,7 @@ static int lock_ref_for_update(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 		lock->count++;
 	} else {
 		ret = lock_raw_ref(refs, update->refname, mustexist,
-				   affected_refnames,
+				   refnames_to_check, affected_refnames,
 				   &lock, &referent,
 				   &update->type, err);
 		if (ret) {
@@ -2811,6 +2807,7 @@ static int files_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 	size_t i;
 	int ret = 0;
 	struct string_list affected_refnames = STRING_LIST_INIT_NODUP;
+	struct string_list refnames_to_check = STRING_LIST_INIT_NODUP;
 	char *head_ref = NULL;
 	int head_type;
 	struct files_transaction_backend_data *backend_data;
@@ -2898,7 +2895,8 @@ static int files_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 		struct ref_update *update = transaction->updates[i];
 
 		ret = lock_ref_for_update(refs, update, transaction,
-					  head_ref, &affected_refnames, err);
+					  head_ref, &refnames_to_check,
+					  &affected_refnames, err);
 		if (ret)
 			goto cleanup;
 
@@ -2930,6 +2928,26 @@ static int files_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 		}
 	}
 
+	/*
+	 * Verify that none of the loose reference that we're about to write
+	 * conflict with any existing packed references. Ideally, we'd do this
+	 * check after the packed-refs are locked so that the file cannot
+	 * change underneath our feet. But introducing such a lock now would
+	 * probably do more harm than good as users rely on there not being a
+	 * global lock with the "files" backend.
+	 *
+	 * Another alternative would be to do the check after the (optional)
+	 * lock, but that would extend the time we spend in the globally-locked
+	 * state.
+	 *
+	 * So instead, we accept the race for now.
+	 */
+	if (refs_verify_refnames_available(refs->packed_ref_store, &refnames_to_check,
+					   &affected_refnames, NULL, 0, err)) {
+		ret = TRANSACTION_NAME_CONFLICT;
+		goto cleanup;
+	}
+
 	if (packed_transaction) {
 		if (packed_refs_lock(refs->packed_ref_store, 0, err)) {
 			ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
@@ -2972,6 +2990,7 @@ static int files_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 cleanup:
 	free(head_ref);
 	string_list_clear(&affected_refnames, 0);
+	string_list_clear(&refnames_to_check, 0);
 
 	if (ret)
 		files_transaction_cleanup(refs, transaction);
@@ -3036,6 +3055,7 @@ static int files_transaction_finish_initial(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 	size_t i;
 	int ret = 0;
 	struct string_list affected_refnames = STRING_LIST_INIT_NODUP;
+	struct string_list refnames_to_check = STRING_LIST_INIT_NODUP;
 	struct ref_transaction *packed_transaction = NULL;
 	struct ref_transaction *loose_transaction = NULL;
 
@@ -3085,11 +3105,7 @@ static int files_transaction_finish_initial(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 		    !is_null_oid(&update->old_oid))
 			BUG("initial ref transaction with old_sha1 set");
 
-		if (refs_verify_refname_available(&refs->base, update->refname,
-						  &affected_refnames, NULL, 1, err)) {
-			ret = TRANSACTION_NAME_CONFLICT;
-			goto cleanup;
-		}
+		string_list_append(&refnames_to_check, update->refname);
 
 		/*
 		 * packed-refs don't support symbolic refs, root refs and reflogs,
@@ -3125,8 +3141,19 @@ static int files_transaction_finish_initial(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 		}
 	}
 
-	if (packed_refs_lock(refs->packed_ref_store, 0, err) ||
-	    ref_transaction_commit(packed_transaction, err)) {
+	if (packed_refs_lock(refs->packed_ref_store, 0, err)) {
+		ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
+		goto cleanup;
+	}
+
+	if (refs_verify_refnames_available(&refs->base, &refnames_to_check,
+					   &affected_refnames, NULL, 1, err)) {
+		packed_refs_unlock(refs->packed_ref_store);
+		ret = TRANSACTION_NAME_CONFLICT;
+		goto cleanup;
+	}
+
+	if (ref_transaction_commit(packed_transaction, err)) {
 		ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
 		goto cleanup;
 	}
@@ -3147,6 +3174,7 @@ cleanup:
 		ref_transaction_free(packed_transaction);
 	transaction->state = REF_TRANSACTION_CLOSED;
 	string_list_clear(&affected_refnames, 0);
+	string_list_clear(&refnames_to_check, 0);
 	return ret;
 }
 
@@ -3808,6 +3836,7 @@ static int files_fsck_refs_dir(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 		ret = error(_("failed to iterate over '%s'"), sb.buf);
 
 out:
+	dir_iterator_free(iter);
 	strbuf_release(&sb);
 	strbuf_release(&refname);
 	return ret;
diff --git a/refs/iterator.c b/refs/iterator.c
index d25e568bf0..766d96e795 100644
--- a/refs/iterator.c
+++ b/refs/iterator.c
@@ -15,15 +15,26 @@ int ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 	return ref_iterator->vtable->advance(ref_iterator);
 }
 
+int ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
+		      const char *prefix)
+{
+	return ref_iterator->vtable->seek(ref_iterator, prefix);
+}
+
 int ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
 		      struct object_id *peeled)
 {
 	return ref_iterator->vtable->peel(ref_iterator, peeled);
 }
 
-int ref_iterator_abort(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
+void ref_iterator_free(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 {
-	return ref_iterator->vtable->abort(ref_iterator);
+	if (ref_iterator) {
+		ref_iterator->vtable->release(ref_iterator);
+		/* Help make use-after-free bugs fail quickly: */
+		ref_iterator->vtable = NULL;
+		free(ref_iterator);
+	}
 }
 
 void base_ref_iterator_init(struct ref_iterator *iter,
@@ -36,20 +47,19 @@ void base_ref_iterator_init(struct ref_iterator *iter,
 	iter->flags = 0;
 }
 
-void base_ref_iterator_free(struct ref_iterator *iter)
-{
-	/* Help make use-after-free bugs fail quickly: */
-	iter->vtable = NULL;
-	free(iter);
-}
-
 struct empty_ref_iterator {
 	struct ref_iterator base;
 };
 
-static int empty_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
+static int empty_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator UNUSED)
 {
-	return ref_iterator_abort(ref_iterator);
+	return ITER_DONE;
+}
+
+static int empty_ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator UNUSED,
+				   const char *prefix UNUSED)
+{
+	return 0;
 }
 
 static int empty_ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator UNUSED,
@@ -58,16 +68,15 @@ static int empty_ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator UNUSED,
 	BUG("peel called for empty iterator");
 }
 
-static int empty_ref_iterator_abort(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
+static void empty_ref_iterator_release(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator UNUSED)
 {
-	base_ref_iterator_free(ref_iterator);
-	return ITER_DONE;
 }
 
 static struct ref_iterator_vtable empty_ref_iterator_vtable = {
 	.advance = empty_ref_iterator_advance,
+	.seek = empty_ref_iterator_seek,
 	.peel = empty_ref_iterator_peel,
-	.abort = empty_ref_iterator_abort,
+	.release = empty_ref_iterator_release,
 };
 
 struct ref_iterator *empty_ref_iterator_begin(void)
@@ -87,7 +96,8 @@ int is_empty_ref_iterator(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 struct merge_ref_iterator {
 	struct ref_iterator base;
 
-	struct ref_iterator *iter0, *iter1;
+	struct ref_iterator *iter0, *iter0_owned;
+	struct ref_iterator *iter1, *iter1_owned;
 
 	ref_iterator_select_fn *select;
 	void *cb_data;
@@ -179,9 +189,8 @@ static int merge_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 			iter->select(iter->iter0, iter->iter1, iter->cb_data);
 
 		if (selection == ITER_SELECT_DONE) {
-			return ref_iterator_abort(ref_iterator);
+			return ITER_DONE;
 		} else if (selection == ITER_SELECT_ERROR) {
-			ref_iterator_abort(ref_iterator);
 			return ITER_ERROR;
 		}
 
@@ -211,10 +220,31 @@ static int merge_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 	}
 
 error:
-	ref_iterator_abort(ref_iterator);
 	return ITER_ERROR;
 }
 
+static int merge_ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
+				   const char *prefix)
+{
+	struct merge_ref_iterator *iter =
+		(struct merge_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
+	int ret;
+
+	iter->current = NULL;
+	iter->iter0 = iter->iter0_owned;
+	iter->iter1 = iter->iter1_owned;
+
+	ret = ref_iterator_seek(iter->iter0, prefix);
+	if (ret < 0)
+		return ret;
+
+	ret = ref_iterator_seek(iter->iter1, prefix);
+	if (ret < 0)
+		return ret;
+
+	return 0;
+}
+
 static int merge_ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
 				   struct object_id *peeled)
 {
@@ -227,28 +257,19 @@ static int merge_ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
 	return ref_iterator_peel(*iter->current, peeled);
 }
 
-static int merge_ref_iterator_abort(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
+static void merge_ref_iterator_release(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 {
 	struct merge_ref_iterator *iter =
 		(struct merge_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
-	int ok = ITER_DONE;
-
-	if (iter->iter0) {
-		if (ref_iterator_abort(iter->iter0) != ITER_DONE)
-			ok = ITER_ERROR;
-	}
-	if (iter->iter1) {
-		if (ref_iterator_abort(iter->iter1) != ITER_DONE)
-			ok = ITER_ERROR;
-	}
-	base_ref_iterator_free(ref_iterator);
-	return ok;
+	ref_iterator_free(iter->iter0_owned);
+	ref_iterator_free(iter->iter1_owned);
 }
 
 static struct ref_iterator_vtable merge_ref_iterator_vtable = {
 	.advance = merge_ref_iterator_advance,
+	.seek = merge_ref_iterator_seek,
 	.peel = merge_ref_iterator_peel,
-	.abort = merge_ref_iterator_abort,
+	.release = merge_ref_iterator_release,
 };
 
 struct ref_iterator *merge_ref_iterator_begin(
@@ -267,8 +288,8 @@ struct ref_iterator *merge_ref_iterator_begin(
 	 */
 
 	base_ref_iterator_init(ref_iterator, &merge_ref_iterator_vtable);
-	iter->iter0 = iter0;
-	iter->iter1 = iter1;
+	iter->iter0 = iter->iter0_owned = iter0;
+	iter->iter1 = iter->iter1_owned = iter1;
 	iter->select = select;
 	iter->cb_data = cb_data;
 	iter->current = NULL;
@@ -310,10 +331,10 @@ struct ref_iterator *overlay_ref_iterator_begin(
 	 * them.
 	 */
 	if (is_empty_ref_iterator(front)) {
-		ref_iterator_abort(front);
+		ref_iterator_free(front);
 		return back;
 	} else if (is_empty_ref_iterator(back)) {
-		ref_iterator_abort(back);
+		ref_iterator_free(back);
 		return front;
 	}
 
@@ -350,19 +371,15 @@ static int prefix_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 
 	while ((ok = ref_iterator_advance(iter->iter0)) == ITER_OK) {
 		int cmp = compare_prefix(iter->iter0->refname, iter->prefix);
-
 		if (cmp < 0)
 			continue;
-
-		if (cmp > 0) {
-			/*
-			 * As the source iterator is ordered, we
-			 * can stop the iteration as soon as we see a
-			 * refname that comes after the prefix:
-			 */
-			ok = ref_iterator_abort(iter->iter0);
-			break;
-		}
+		/*
+		 * As the source iterator is ordered, we
+		 * can stop the iteration as soon as we see a
+		 * refname that comes after the prefix:
+		 */
+		if (cmp > 0)
+			return ITER_DONE;
 
 		if (iter->trim) {
 			/*
@@ -386,12 +403,19 @@ static int prefix_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 		return ITER_OK;
 	}
 
-	iter->iter0 = NULL;
-	if (ref_iterator_abort(ref_iterator) != ITER_DONE)
-		return ITER_ERROR;
 	return ok;
 }
 
+static int prefix_ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
+				    const char *prefix)
+{
+	struct prefix_ref_iterator *iter =
+		(struct prefix_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
+	free(iter->prefix);
+	iter->prefix = xstrdup_or_null(prefix);
+	return ref_iterator_seek(iter->iter0, prefix);
+}
+
 static int prefix_ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
 				    struct object_id *peeled)
 {
@@ -401,23 +425,19 @@ static int prefix_ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
 	return ref_iterator_peel(iter->iter0, peeled);
 }
 
-static int prefix_ref_iterator_abort(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
+static void prefix_ref_iterator_release(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 {
 	struct prefix_ref_iterator *iter =
 		(struct prefix_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
-	int ok = ITER_DONE;
-
-	if (iter->iter0)
-		ok = ref_iterator_abort(iter->iter0);
+	ref_iterator_free(iter->iter0);
 	free(iter->prefix);
-	base_ref_iterator_free(ref_iterator);
-	return ok;
 }
 
 static struct ref_iterator_vtable prefix_ref_iterator_vtable = {
 	.advance = prefix_ref_iterator_advance,
+	.seek = prefix_ref_iterator_seek,
 	.peel = prefix_ref_iterator_peel,
-	.abort = prefix_ref_iterator_abort,
+	.release = prefix_ref_iterator_release,
 };
 
 struct ref_iterator *prefix_ref_iterator_begin(struct ref_iterator *iter0,
@@ -453,20 +473,14 @@ int do_for_each_ref_iterator(struct ref_iterator *iter,
 	current_ref_iter = iter;
 	while ((ok = ref_iterator_advance(iter)) == ITER_OK) {
 		retval = fn(iter->refname, iter->referent, iter->oid, iter->flags, cb_data);
-		if (retval) {
-			/*
-			 * If ref_iterator_abort() returns ITER_ERROR,
-			 * we ignore that error in deference to the
-			 * callback function's return value.
-			 */
-			ref_iterator_abort(iter);
+		if (retval)
 			goto out;
-		}
 	}
 
 out:
 	current_ref_iter = old_ref_iter;
 	if (ok == ITER_ERROR)
-		return -1;
+		retval = -1;
+	ref_iterator_free(iter);
 	return retval;
 }
diff --git a/refs/packed-backend.c b/refs/packed-backend.c
index 813e5020e4..b4289a7d9c 100644
--- a/refs/packed-backend.c
+++ b/refs/packed-backend.c
@@ -841,6 +841,8 @@ struct packed_ref_iterator {
 
 	struct snapshot *snapshot;
 
+	char *prefix;
+
 	/* The current position in the snapshot's buffer: */
 	const char *pos;
 
@@ -863,11 +865,9 @@ struct packed_ref_iterator {
 };
 
 /*
- * Move the iterator to the next record in the snapshot, without
- * respect for whether the record is actually required by the current
- * iteration. Adjust the fields in `iter` and return `ITER_OK` or
- * `ITER_DONE`. This function does not free the iterator in the case
- * of `ITER_DONE`.
+ * Move the iterator to the next record in the snapshot. Adjust the fields in
+ * `iter` and return `ITER_OK` or `ITER_DONE`. This function does not free the
+ * iterator in the case of `ITER_DONE`.
  */
 static int next_record(struct packed_ref_iterator *iter)
 {
@@ -967,6 +967,9 @@ static int packed_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 	int ok;
 
 	while ((ok = next_record(iter)) == ITER_OK) {
+		const char *refname = iter->base.refname;
+		const char *prefix = iter->prefix;
+
 		if (iter->flags & DO_FOR_EACH_PER_WORKTREE_ONLY &&
 		    !is_per_worktree_ref(iter->base.refname))
 			continue;
@@ -976,15 +979,41 @@ static int packed_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 					    &iter->oid, iter->flags))
 			continue;
 
+		while (prefix && *prefix) {
+			if (*refname < *prefix)
+				BUG("packed-refs backend yielded reference preceding its prefix");
+			else if (*refname > *prefix)
+				return ITER_DONE;
+			prefix++;
+			refname++;
+		}
+
 		return ITER_OK;
 	}
 
-	if (ref_iterator_abort(ref_iterator) != ITER_DONE)
-		ok = ITER_ERROR;
-
 	return ok;
 }
 
+static int packed_ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
+				    const char *prefix)
+{
+	struct packed_ref_iterator *iter =
+		(struct packed_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
+	const char *start;
+
+	if (prefix && *prefix)
+		start = find_reference_location(iter->snapshot, prefix, 0);
+	else
+		start = iter->snapshot->start;
+
+	free(iter->prefix);
+	iter->prefix = xstrdup_or_null(prefix);
+	iter->pos = start;
+	iter->eof = iter->snapshot->eof;
+
+	return 0;
+}
+
 static int packed_ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
 				   struct object_id *peeled)
 {
@@ -1001,23 +1030,21 @@ static int packed_ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
 	}
 }
 
-static int packed_ref_iterator_abort(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
+static void packed_ref_iterator_release(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 {
 	struct packed_ref_iterator *iter =
 		(struct packed_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
-	int ok = ITER_DONE;
-
 	strbuf_release(&iter->refname_buf);
 	free(iter->jump);
+	free(iter->prefix);
 	release_snapshot(iter->snapshot);
-	base_ref_iterator_free(ref_iterator);
-	return ok;
 }
 
 static struct ref_iterator_vtable packed_ref_iterator_vtable = {
 	.advance = packed_ref_iterator_advance,
+	.seek = packed_ref_iterator_seek,
 	.peel = packed_ref_iterator_peel,
-	.abort = packed_ref_iterator_abort
+	.release = packed_ref_iterator_release,
 };
 
 static int jump_list_entry_cmp(const void *va, const void *vb)
@@ -1129,7 +1156,6 @@ static struct ref_iterator *packed_ref_iterator_begin(
 {
 	struct packed_ref_store *refs;
 	struct snapshot *snapshot;
-	const char *start;
 	struct packed_ref_iterator *iter;
 	struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator;
 	unsigned int required_flags = REF_STORE_READ;
@@ -1145,14 +1171,6 @@ static struct ref_iterator *packed_ref_iterator_begin(
 	 */
 	snapshot = get_snapshot(refs);
 
-	if (prefix && *prefix)
-		start = find_reference_location(snapshot, prefix, 0);
-	else
-		start = snapshot->start;
-
-	if (start == snapshot->eof)
-		return empty_ref_iterator_begin();
-
 	CALLOC_ARRAY(iter, 1);
 	ref_iterator = &iter->base;
 	base_ref_iterator_init(ref_iterator, &packed_ref_iterator_vtable);
@@ -1162,19 +1180,15 @@ static struct ref_iterator *packed_ref_iterator_begin(
 
 	iter->snapshot = snapshot;
 	acquire_snapshot(snapshot);
-
-	iter->pos = start;
-	iter->eof = snapshot->eof;
 	strbuf_init(&iter->refname_buf, 0);
-
 	iter->base.oid = &iter->oid;
-
 	iter->repo = ref_store->repo;
 	iter->flags = flags;
 
-	if (prefix && *prefix)
-		/* Stop iteration after we've gone *past* prefix: */
-		ref_iterator = prefix_ref_iterator_begin(ref_iterator, prefix, 0);
+	if (packed_ref_iterator_seek(&iter->base, prefix) < 0) {
+		ref_iterator_free(&iter->base);
+		return NULL;
+	}
 
 	return ref_iterator;
 }
@@ -1387,8 +1401,10 @@ static int write_with_updates(struct packed_ref_store *refs,
 	 */
 	iter = packed_ref_iterator_begin(&refs->base, "", NULL,
 					 DO_FOR_EACH_INCLUDE_BROKEN);
-	if ((ok = ref_iterator_advance(iter)) != ITER_OK)
+	if ((ok = ref_iterator_advance(iter)) != ITER_OK) {
+		ref_iterator_free(iter);
 		iter = NULL;
+	}
 
 	i = 0;
 
@@ -1436,8 +1452,10 @@ static int write_with_updates(struct packed_ref_store *refs,
 				 * the iterator over the unneeded
 				 * value.
 				 */
-				if ((ok = ref_iterator_advance(iter)) != ITER_OK)
+				if ((ok = ref_iterator_advance(iter)) != ITER_OK) {
+					ref_iterator_free(iter);
 					iter = NULL;
+				}
 				cmp = +1;
 			} else {
 				/*
@@ -1474,8 +1492,10 @@ static int write_with_updates(struct packed_ref_store *refs,
 					       peel_error ? NULL : &peeled))
 				goto write_error;
 
-			if ((ok = ref_iterator_advance(iter)) != ITER_OK)
+			if ((ok = ref_iterator_advance(iter)) != ITER_OK) {
+				ref_iterator_free(iter);
 				iter = NULL;
+			}
 		} else if (is_null_oid(&update->new_oid)) {
 			/*
 			 * The update wants to delete the reference,
@@ -1524,9 +1544,7 @@ write_error:
 		    get_tempfile_path(refs->tempfile), strerror(errno));
 
 error:
-	if (iter)
-		ref_iterator_abort(iter);
-
+	ref_iterator_free(iter);
 	delete_tempfile(&refs->tempfile);
 	return -1;
 }
diff --git a/refs/ref-cache.c b/refs/ref-cache.c
index 02f09e4df8..c1f1bab1d5 100644
--- a/refs/ref-cache.c
+++ b/refs/ref-cache.c
@@ -362,9 +362,7 @@ struct cache_ref_iterator {
 	struct ref_iterator base;
 
 	/*
-	 * The number of levels currently on the stack. This is always
-	 * at least 1, because when it becomes zero the iteration is
-	 * ended and this struct is freed.
+	 * The number of levels currently on the stack.
 	 */
 	size_t levels_nr;
 
@@ -376,7 +374,7 @@ struct cache_ref_iterator {
 	 * The prefix is matched textually, without regard for path
 	 * component boundaries.
 	 */
-	const char *prefix;
+	char *prefix;
 
 	/*
 	 * A stack of levels. levels[0] is the uppermost level that is
@@ -389,6 +387,9 @@ struct cache_ref_iterator {
 	struct cache_ref_iterator_level *levels;
 
 	struct repository *repo;
+	struct ref_cache *cache;
+
+	int prime_dir;
 };
 
 static int cache_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
@@ -396,6 +397,9 @@ static int cache_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 	struct cache_ref_iterator *iter =
 		(struct cache_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
 
+	if (!iter->levels_nr)
+		return ITER_DONE;
+
 	while (1) {
 		struct cache_ref_iterator_level *level =
 			&iter->levels[iter->levels_nr - 1];
@@ -409,7 +413,7 @@ static int cache_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 		if (++level->index == level->dir->nr) {
 			/* This level is exhausted; pop up a level */
 			if (--iter->levels_nr == 0)
-				return ref_iterator_abort(ref_iterator);
+				return ITER_DONE;
 
 			continue;
 		}
@@ -444,6 +448,41 @@ static int cache_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 	}
 }
 
+static int cache_ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
+				   const char *prefix)
+{
+	struct cache_ref_iterator *iter =
+		(struct cache_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
+	struct cache_ref_iterator_level *level;
+	struct ref_dir *dir;
+
+	dir = get_ref_dir(iter->cache->root);
+	if (prefix && *prefix)
+		dir = find_containing_dir(dir, prefix);
+	if (!dir) {
+		iter->levels_nr = 0;
+		return 0;
+	}
+
+	if (iter->prime_dir)
+		prime_ref_dir(dir, prefix);
+	iter->levels_nr = 1;
+	level = &iter->levels[0];
+	level->index = -1;
+	level->dir = dir;
+
+	if (prefix && *prefix) {
+		free(iter->prefix);
+		iter->prefix = xstrdup(prefix);
+		level->prefix_state = PREFIX_WITHIN_DIR;
+	} else {
+		FREE_AND_NULL(iter->prefix);
+		level->prefix_state = PREFIX_CONTAINS_DIR;
+	}
+
+	return 0;
+}
+
 static int cache_ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
 				   struct object_id *peeled)
 {
@@ -452,21 +491,19 @@ static int cache_ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
 	return peel_object(iter->repo, ref_iterator->oid, peeled) ? -1 : 0;
 }
 
-static int cache_ref_iterator_abort(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
+static void cache_ref_iterator_release(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 {
 	struct cache_ref_iterator *iter =
 		(struct cache_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
-
-	free((char *)iter->prefix);
+	free(iter->prefix);
 	free(iter->levels);
-	base_ref_iterator_free(ref_iterator);
-	return ITER_DONE;
 }
 
 static struct ref_iterator_vtable cache_ref_iterator_vtable = {
 	.advance = cache_ref_iterator_advance,
+	.seek = cache_ref_iterator_seek,
 	.peel = cache_ref_iterator_peel,
-	.abort = cache_ref_iterator_abort
+	.release = cache_ref_iterator_release,
 };
 
 struct ref_iterator *cache_ref_iterator_begin(struct ref_cache *cache,
@@ -474,39 +511,22 @@ struct ref_iterator *cache_ref_iterator_begin(struct ref_cache *cache,
 					      struct repository *repo,
 					      int prime_dir)
 {
-	struct ref_dir *dir;
 	struct cache_ref_iterator *iter;
 	struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator;
-	struct cache_ref_iterator_level *level;
-
-	dir = get_ref_dir(cache->root);
-	if (prefix && *prefix)
-		dir = find_containing_dir(dir, prefix);
-	if (!dir)
-		/* There's nothing to iterate over. */
-		return empty_ref_iterator_begin();
-
-	if (prime_dir)
-		prime_ref_dir(dir, prefix);
 
 	CALLOC_ARRAY(iter, 1);
 	ref_iterator = &iter->base;
 	base_ref_iterator_init(ref_iterator, &cache_ref_iterator_vtable);
 	ALLOC_GROW(iter->levels, 10, iter->levels_alloc);
 
-	iter->levels_nr = 1;
-	level = &iter->levels[0];
-	level->index = -1;
-	level->dir = dir;
-
-	if (prefix && *prefix) {
-		iter->prefix = xstrdup(prefix);
-		level->prefix_state = PREFIX_WITHIN_DIR;
-	} else {
-		level->prefix_state = PREFIX_CONTAINS_DIR;
-	}
-
 	iter->repo = repo;
+	iter->cache = cache;
+	iter->prime_dir = prime_dir;
+
+	if (cache_ref_iterator_seek(&iter->base, prefix) < 0) {
+		ref_iterator_free(&iter->base);
+		return NULL;
+	}
 
 	return ref_iterator;
 }
diff --git a/refs/refs-internal.h b/refs/refs-internal.h
index 8894b43d1d..e5862757a7 100644
--- a/refs/refs-internal.h
+++ b/refs/refs-internal.h
@@ -273,11 +273,11 @@ enum do_for_each_ref_flags {
  * the next reference and returns ITER_OK. The data pointed at by
  * refname and oid belong to the iterator; if you want to retain them
  * after calling ref_iterator_advance() again or calling
- * ref_iterator_abort(), you must make a copy. When the iteration has
+ * ref_iterator_free(), you must make a copy. When the iteration has
  * been exhausted, ref_iterator_advance() releases any resources
  * associated with the iteration, frees the ref_iterator object, and
  * returns ITER_DONE. If you want to abort the iteration early, call
- * ref_iterator_abort(), which also frees the ref_iterator object and
+ * ref_iterator_free(), which also frees the ref_iterator object and
  * any associated resources. If there was an internal error advancing
  * to the next entry, ref_iterator_advance() aborts the iteration,
  * frees the ref_iterator, and returns ITER_ERROR.
@@ -293,7 +293,7 @@ enum do_for_each_ref_flags {
  *
  *     while ((ok = ref_iterator_advance(iter)) == ITER_OK) {
  *             if (want_to_stop_iteration()) {
- *                     ok = ref_iterator_abort(iter);
+ *                     ok = ITER_DONE;
  *                     break;
  *             }
  *
@@ -307,6 +307,7 @@ enum do_for_each_ref_flags {
  *
  *     if (ok != ITER_DONE)
  *             handle_error();
+ *     ref_iterator_free(iter);
  */
 struct ref_iterator {
 	struct ref_iterator_vtable *vtable;
@@ -326,6 +327,22 @@ struct ref_iterator {
  */
 int ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator);
 
+/*
+ * Seek the iterator to the first reference with the given prefix.
+ * The prefix is matched as a literal string, without regard for path
+ * separators. If prefix is NULL or the empty string, seek the iterator to the
+ * first reference again.
+ *
+ * This function is expected to behave as if a new ref iterator with the same
+ * prefix had been created, but allows reuse of iterators and thus may allow
+ * the backend to optimize. Parameters other than the prefix that have been
+ * passed when creating the iterator will remain unchanged.
+ *
+ * Returns 0 on success, a negative error code otherwise.
+ */
+int ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
+		      const char *prefix);
+
 /*
  * If possible, peel the reference currently being viewed by the
  * iterator. Return 0 on success.
@@ -333,12 +350,8 @@ int ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator);
 int ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
 		      struct object_id *peeled);
 
-/*
- * End the iteration before it has been exhausted, freeing the
- * reference iterator and any associated resources and returning
- * ITER_DONE. If the abort itself failed, return ITER_ERROR.
- */
-int ref_iterator_abort(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator);
+/* Free the reference iterator and any associated resources. */
+void ref_iterator_free(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator);
 
 /*
  * An iterator over nothing (its first ref_iterator_advance() call
@@ -438,13 +451,6 @@ struct ref_iterator *prefix_ref_iterator_begin(struct ref_iterator *iter0,
 void base_ref_iterator_init(struct ref_iterator *iter,
 			    struct ref_iterator_vtable *vtable);
 
-/*
- * Base class destructor for ref_iterators. Destroy the ref_iterator
- * part of iter and shallow-free the object. This is meant to be
- * called only by the destructors of derived classes.
- */
-void base_ref_iterator_free(struct ref_iterator *iter);
-
 /* Virtual function declarations for ref_iterators: */
 
 /*
@@ -455,6 +461,13 @@ void base_ref_iterator_free(struct ref_iterator *iter);
  */
 typedef int ref_iterator_advance_fn(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator);
 
+/*
+ * Seek the iterator to the first reference matching the given prefix. Should
+ * behave the same as if a new iterator was created with the same prefix.
+ */
+typedef int ref_iterator_seek_fn(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
+				 const char *prefix);
+
 /*
  * Peels the current ref, returning 0 for success or -1 for failure.
  */
@@ -463,15 +476,15 @@ typedef int ref_iterator_peel_fn(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
 
 /*
  * Implementations of this function should free any resources specific
- * to the derived class, then call base_ref_iterator_free() to clean
- * up and free the ref_iterator object.
+ * to the derived class.
  */
-typedef int ref_iterator_abort_fn(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator);
+typedef void ref_iterator_release_fn(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator);
 
 struct ref_iterator_vtable {
 	ref_iterator_advance_fn *advance;
+	ref_iterator_seek_fn *seek;
 	ref_iterator_peel_fn *peel;
-	ref_iterator_abort_fn *abort;
+	ref_iterator_release_fn *release;
 };
 
 /*
diff --git a/refs/reftable-backend.c b/refs/reftable-backend.c
index 771f50df38..ae434cd248 100644
--- a/refs/reftable-backend.c
+++ b/refs/reftable-backend.c
@@ -547,7 +547,7 @@ struct reftable_ref_iterator {
 	struct reftable_ref_record ref;
 	struct object_id oid;
 
-	const char *prefix;
+	char *prefix;
 	size_t prefix_len;
 	char **exclude_patterns;
 	size_t exclude_patterns_index;
@@ -711,20 +711,27 @@ static int reftable_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 		break;
 	}
 
-	if (iter->err > 0) {
-		if (ref_iterator_abort(ref_iterator) != ITER_DONE)
-			return ITER_ERROR;
+	if (iter->err > 0)
 		return ITER_DONE;
-	}
-
-	if (iter->err < 0) {
-		ref_iterator_abort(ref_iterator);
+	if (iter->err < 0)
 		return ITER_ERROR;
-	}
-
 	return ITER_OK;
 }
 
+static int reftable_ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
+				      const char *prefix)
+{
+	struct reftable_ref_iterator *iter =
+		(struct reftable_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
+
+	free(iter->prefix);
+	iter->prefix = xstrdup_or_null(prefix);
+	iter->prefix_len = prefix ? strlen(prefix) : 0;
+	iter->err = reftable_iterator_seek_ref(&iter->iter, prefix);
+
+	return iter->err;
+}
+
 static int reftable_ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
 				      struct object_id *peeled)
 {
@@ -740,7 +747,7 @@ static int reftable_ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
 	return -1;
 }
 
-static int reftable_ref_iterator_abort(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
+static void reftable_ref_iterator_release(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 {
 	struct reftable_ref_iterator *iter =
 		(struct reftable_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
@@ -751,14 +758,14 @@ static int reftable_ref_iterator_abort(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 			free(iter->exclude_patterns[i]);
 		free(iter->exclude_patterns);
 	}
-	free(iter);
-	return ITER_DONE;
+	free(iter->prefix);
 }
 
 static struct ref_iterator_vtable reftable_ref_iterator_vtable = {
 	.advance = reftable_ref_iterator_advance,
+	.seek = reftable_ref_iterator_seek,
 	.peel = reftable_ref_iterator_peel,
-	.abort = reftable_ref_iterator_abort
+	.release = reftable_ref_iterator_release,
 };
 
 static int qsort_strcmp(const void *va, const void *vb)
@@ -815,8 +822,6 @@ static struct reftable_ref_iterator *ref_iterator_for_stack(struct reftable_ref_
 
 	iter = xcalloc(1, sizeof(*iter));
 	base_ref_iterator_init(&iter->base, &reftable_ref_iterator_vtable);
-	iter->prefix = prefix;
-	iter->prefix_len = prefix ? strlen(prefix) : 0;
 	iter->base.oid = &iter->oid;
 	iter->flags = flags;
 	iter->refs = refs;
@@ -830,8 +835,11 @@ static struct reftable_ref_iterator *ref_iterator_for_stack(struct reftable_ref_
 	if (ret)
 		goto done;
 
-	reftable_stack_init_ref_iterator(stack, &iter->iter);
-	ret = reftable_iterator_seek_ref(&iter->iter, prefix);
+	ret = reftable_stack_init_ref_iterator(stack, &iter->iter);
+	if (ret)
+		goto done;
+
+	ret = reftable_ref_iterator_seek(&iter->base, prefix);
 	if (ret)
 		goto done;
 
@@ -1069,6 +1077,7 @@ static int reftable_be_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 		reftable_be_downcast(ref_store, REF_STORE_WRITE|REF_STORE_MAIN, "ref_transaction_prepare");
 	struct strbuf referent = STRBUF_INIT, head_referent = STRBUF_INIT;
 	struct string_list affected_refnames = STRING_LIST_INIT_NODUP;
+	struct string_list refnames_to_check = STRING_LIST_INIT_NODUP;
 	struct reftable_transaction_data *tx_data = NULL;
 	struct reftable_backend *be;
 	struct object_id head_oid;
@@ -1224,12 +1233,7 @@ static int reftable_be_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 			 * can output a proper error message instead of failing
 			 * at a later point.
 			 */
-			ret = refs_verify_refname_available(ref_store, u->refname,
-							    &affected_refnames, NULL,
-							    transaction->flags & REF_TRANSACTION_FLAG_INITIAL,
-							    err);
-			if (ret < 0)
-				goto done;
+			string_list_append(&refnames_to_check, u->refname);
 
 			/*
 			 * There is no need to write the reference deletion
@@ -1379,6 +1383,12 @@ static int reftable_be_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 		}
 	}
 
+	ret = refs_verify_refnames_available(ref_store, &refnames_to_check, &affected_refnames, NULL,
+					     transaction->flags & REF_TRANSACTION_FLAG_INITIAL,
+					     err);
+	if (ret < 0)
+		goto done;
+
 	transaction->backend_data = tx_data;
 	transaction->state = REF_TRANSACTION_PREPARED;
 
@@ -1394,6 +1404,7 @@ done:
 	string_list_clear(&affected_refnames, 0);
 	strbuf_release(&referent);
 	strbuf_release(&head_referent);
+	string_list_clear(&refnames_to_check, 0);
 
 	return ret;
 }
@@ -2017,20 +2028,20 @@ static int reftable_reflog_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 		break;
 	}
 
-	if (iter->err > 0) {
-		if (ref_iterator_abort(ref_iterator) != ITER_DONE)
-			return ITER_ERROR;
+	if (iter->err > 0)
 		return ITER_DONE;
-	}
-
-	if (iter->err < 0) {
-		ref_iterator_abort(ref_iterator);
+	if (iter->err < 0)
 		return ITER_ERROR;
-	}
-
 	return ITER_OK;
 }
 
+static int reftable_reflog_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator UNUSED,
+					 const char *prefix UNUSED)
+{
+	BUG("reftable reflog iterator cannot be seeked");
+	return -1;
+}
+
 static int reftable_reflog_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator UNUSED,
 					 struct object_id *peeled UNUSED)
 {
@@ -2038,21 +2049,20 @@ static int reftable_reflog_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator UNUSE
 	return -1;
 }
 
-static int reftable_reflog_iterator_abort(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
+static void reftable_reflog_iterator_release(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 {
 	struct reftable_reflog_iterator *iter =
 		(struct reftable_reflog_iterator *)ref_iterator;
 	reftable_log_record_release(&iter->log);
 	reftable_iterator_destroy(&iter->iter);
 	strbuf_release(&iter->last_name);
-	free(iter);
-	return ITER_DONE;
 }
 
 static struct ref_iterator_vtable reftable_reflog_iterator_vtable = {
 	.advance = reftable_reflog_iterator_advance,
+	.seek = reftable_reflog_iterator_seek,
 	.peel = reftable_reflog_iterator_peel,
-	.abort = reftable_reflog_iterator_abort
+	.release = reftable_reflog_iterator_release,
 };
 
 static struct reftable_reflog_iterator *reflog_iterator_for_stack(struct reftable_ref_store *refs,
diff --git a/t/helper/test-dir-iterator.c b/t/helper/test-dir-iterator.c
index 6b297bd753..8d46e8ba40 100644
--- a/t/helper/test-dir-iterator.c
+++ b/t/helper/test-dir-iterator.c
@@ -53,6 +53,7 @@ int cmd__dir_iterator(int argc, const char **argv)
 		printf("(%s) [%s] %s\n", diter->relative_path, diter->basename,
 		       diter->path.buf);
 	}
+	dir_iterator_free(diter);
 
 	if (iter_status != ITER_DONE) {
 		printf("dir_iterator_advance failure\n");